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Sustainable siting of offshore wind farms

Gkeka-Serpetsidaki Pandora

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Summary

A major global goal is to reduce the carbon footprint of energy power generation. There will be a significant role for offshore wind farms (OWFs) in the new era of renewable energy. Land-use conflicts, together with the growing demand for green energy and the untapped offshore wind potential, contribute to the development of OWFs. It remains an open research question regarding their sustainable siting. This is because: (i) there is a need for the islands to generate energy on their own; (ii) there are long distances to the mainland; and (iii) there is a high potential for offshore wind. In most cases, wind power potential is located at sea and primarily in areas with significant depth, making it impossible to install fixed wind turbines. Clean energy could be produced by floating wind farms, which can be deployed in deep waters. As part of the next stage, it is essential to consider both the potential visual impact of the emerging sites as well as the techno-economic assessment to ensure their acceptability.In the first stage of this study, the objective was to examine the most commonly used methods and to identify what suggestions might be made to improve this approach. The aim was to evaluate already published methodologies in peer-reviewed papers during the last eight years, compare them, and identify them according to their geographical location, journal type, foundation type, and methodology dimension. The reviewed articles are distributed across 34 different scientific journals, with the majority appearing in the journals Renewable Energy, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, and Energies; the majority of the studies conducted were conducted in Turkey, China, and Greece; half of the papers reviewed employed multi-criteria decision-making methods; most studies are concerned with bottom-fixed technologies for OWFs, which are the most popular and most frequently used technologies today. The 80 papers reviewed were divided into five categories based on the methodologies used: Marine Spatial Planning, Feasibility Analysis, Probabilistic Methods, Meteorological Data, and Multi-Criteria Decision Making. The 80 papers analysed were categorized based on 170 criteria, resulting in a final set of 41 criteria.In the second part of this thesis, the objective was to identify the most suitable marine areas for the development of OWFs, using the Analytical Hierarchy Process and Geographic Information Systems, as well as the 14 exclusion criteria and 16 evaluation criteria. An extensive range of local stakeholders and experts have been consulted in this study, taking into account the specific characteristics of the island of Crete. Seven different commercially available models are used to assess the energy capacity of the high-suitable marine areas. Additionally, a geographical information system-based technique was developed in parallel in order to identify the most suitable areas in the Cretan Sea for the installation of floating wind farms according to their energy characteristics. To determine the most suitable areas for their sustainable siting, the available areas were analysed on the basis of energy, techno economic, environmental, safety, and project nuisance criteria. There were three areas that were ranked as the most suitable for energy production, and their energy characteristics were evaluated.The thesis then presented a comprehensive and multi-layered techno-economic analysis of the Gulf of Heraklion, Crete, based on the emerging areas. As part of the thesis, three different techno-economic scenarios for the installation and operation of wind turbines were evaluated, including both bottom-fixed and floating turbines. Using the WAsP program, the energy efficiency of wind turbines is analysed under various wind conditions, and the technical specifications and estimated equipment contribute to a global assessment of wind turbine performance. Further, by analyzing costs such as Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE), Installation Cost (CAPEX), Operating Expenses (OPEX), and Decommissioning Costs (DECEX), as well as indicators such as Payback Time, Internal Rate of Return (IRR), net cash flows, and net present value (NPV), a comprehensive picture of the financial and time profile of the selected types of wind turbines is obtained.As a final objective, this study tested existing tools for assessing the visual impact of OWFs. It was also suggested that improvements be made when it was discovered that the factors did not correspond to reality. In order to minimize the visual impact, the adopted methodology compared the results from the original Spanish method, Spanish method II, Greek legislation, local people surveys, and novel combinations of scenarios. The software tools AutoCAD, ArcGIS, and Google Earth were also employed. As a result of the previous stage of analysis, Kissamos, Western Crete, was chosen for the study. Moreover, an additional methodology was developed that quantified the visual impact, compared the results with the opinions of nearby citizens, and suggested an approach that is realistic. Interviews were conducted in August in order to meet as many people as possible since these villages were primarily tourist destinations.According to most respondents, the distance from environmental interest areas was the most important criterion for choosing suitable sites for development. Based on the results of the study, it was determined that the final available area for OWF siting is 205.5 km2; 126.25 km2 of high suitability with a potential of 620 to 900 MW. Additionally, the role floating wind farms can play in the case of Crete is emphasized, as they can cover up to 56% of the island's energy needs and provide electricity for 396,000 households.The techno-economic analysis revealed a range of values for energy, focusing on the middle and highest values. As a result of this observation, it was possible to determine the most ideal scenario for investment efficiency. Through its analytical approach, this thesis examined the factors that affect the efficiency, sustainability, and competitiveness of offshore wind energy in this special region, highlighting the opportunities and challenges associated with the adoption of this technology. As a final step, a strategic direction for political, economic, and environmental decision-making is provided.Lastly, the results of visual impact methodologies indicated that the original Spanish method deviated by 88.0% from the public opinion, and, therefore, that the method needs to be improved considering current data. On the contrary, one of the new suggested scenarios was verified to be more concise and accurate, reaching a deviation of 19.7%. In addition, according to the results of the methodology (Greek legislation), the first limitation is met in both examined scenarios, resulting in minimal or no visual impact. In addition, respondents stated that they would not experience any optical disturbances as a result of an offshore wind farm in their region. In addition, 64% of respondents are positive or very positive about renewable energy exploitation, while only 11% are against it, regardless of their age.

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